1 00:00:04,100 --> 00:00:07,933 Narrator: OUR SOLAR SYSTEM IS A SAVAGE PLACE. 2 00:00:07,933 --> 00:00:11,500 FROM THE ICE VOLCANOES OF SATURN'S MOON ENCELADUS, 3 00:00:11,500 --> 00:00:15,300 TO THE VAST LAVA FIELDS OF JUPITER'S IO, 4 00:00:15,300 --> 00:00:18,467 TO OUR OWN WORLD, THE EARTH, 5 00:00:18,467 --> 00:00:20,667 VOLCANOES DESTROY. 6 00:00:20,667 --> 00:00:22,533 THEY ALSO CREATE. 7 00:00:22,533 --> 00:00:25,200 IT IS LITERALLY TRUE THAT, IF THERE WEREN'T VOLCANOES HERE, 8 00:00:25,200 --> 00:00:26,633 WE WOULD NOT BE HERE EITHER. 9 00:00:26,633 --> 00:00:29,933 Narrator: VOLCANOES SHAPE AND CHANGE OUR CLIMATE. 10 00:00:29,933 --> 00:00:33,900 VOLCANOES ARE THE GIVER OF LIFE AND, ALSO, THE TAKERS OF LIFE. 11 00:00:33,900 --> 00:00:38,133 Narrator: TODAY'S SPACE PROBES AND TELESCOPES 12 00:00:38,133 --> 00:00:42,833 REVEAL VOLCANOES ON WORLDS WE ONCE THOUGHT DEAD. 13 00:00:42,833 --> 00:00:47,467 FINDING VOLCANOES ON AN OBJECT THAT'S SMALLER THAN OUR OWN MOON 14 00:00:47,467 --> 00:00:48,833 WAS A HUGE SHOCK. 15 00:00:48,833 --> 00:00:52,567 Narrator: IF VOLCANOES EXIST ON OTHER WORLDS, 16 00:00:52,567 --> 00:00:56,000 COULD WE FIND LIFE THERE, TOO? 17 00:00:56,000 --> 00:00:58,500 -- Captions by VITAC -- www.vitac.com 18 00:00:58,500 --> 00:01:01,133 CAPTIONS PAID FOR BY DISCOVERY COMMUNICATIONS 19 00:01:16,967 --> 00:01:22,267 PLANET EARTH -- A JEWEL IN THE DARKNESS OF SPACE. 20 00:01:22,267 --> 00:01:27,233 OUR HOME IS TIMELESS... 21 00:01:27,233 --> 00:01:29,233 BEAUTIFUL... 22 00:01:29,233 --> 00:01:33,500 AND INCREDIBLY VIOLENT. 23 00:01:33,500 --> 00:01:37,367 VOLCANOES ARE ONE OF THE MOST POWERFUL NATURAL PHENOMENA 24 00:01:37,367 --> 00:01:38,767 ON THE PLANET. 25 00:01:38,767 --> 00:01:41,433 THEY CREATE NEW LAND, 26 00:01:41,433 --> 00:01:45,367 DESTROY THE OLD. 27 00:01:45,367 --> 00:01:49,733 THEY BLAST OUT GASES THAT TRANSFORM THE AIR WE BREATHE. 28 00:01:52,900 --> 00:01:54,633 DEEP IN OUR OCEANS, 29 00:01:54,633 --> 00:01:59,333 VOLCANIC HEAT FUELS STRANGE NEW LIFE. 30 00:01:59,333 --> 00:02:02,767 VOLCANOES HELP POWER THE LIVING EARTH. 31 00:02:05,433 --> 00:02:09,300 NOW WE SEARCH FOR SIGNS OF LIFE ON ALIEN WORLDS. 32 00:02:11,467 --> 00:02:13,200 WE KNOW LIFE NEEDS WATER. 33 00:02:13,200 --> 00:02:16,133 WE KNOW IT NEEDS ENERGY. 34 00:02:16,133 --> 00:02:19,833 AND THAT'S WHERE VOLCANOES COME IN -- 35 00:02:19,833 --> 00:02:23,200 THEY PUMP OUT VAST AMOUNTS OF ENERGY. 36 00:02:23,200 --> 00:02:27,067 FIND VOLCANOES ON OTHER WORLDS, 37 00:02:27,067 --> 00:02:29,367 AND WE MIGHT FIND LIFE. 38 00:02:41,433 --> 00:02:43,800 THE SEARCH STARTS HERE -- 39 00:02:43,800 --> 00:02:47,333 THE PLANET ORBITING CLOSEST TO EARTH... 40 00:02:47,333 --> 00:02:51,867 VENUS, A WORLD THAT APPEARS VERY MUCH LIKE OURS. 41 00:02:56,167 --> 00:02:58,067 VENUS AND EARTH ARE ROUGHLY THE SAME MASS. 42 00:02:58,067 --> 00:03:00,300 THEY'RE ROUGHLY THE SAME DISTANCE AWAY FROM THE SUN. 43 00:03:00,300 --> 00:03:01,833 SO THEY'RE KIND OF LIKE TWINS. 44 00:03:07,067 --> 00:03:08,933 Narrator: 3 BILLION YEARS AGO, 45 00:03:08,933 --> 00:03:11,633 EARTH AND VENUS WERE VERY SIMILAR... 46 00:03:14,333 --> 00:03:19,867 ...NEW LAND, NEW OCEANS, AN ATMOSPHERE. 47 00:03:19,867 --> 00:03:22,700 BOTH PLANETS WERE PERFECT FOR LIFE. 48 00:03:22,700 --> 00:03:24,967 [ THUNDER RUMBLING ] 49 00:03:24,967 --> 00:03:28,533 BUT ON VENUS, SOMETHING WENT WRONG. 50 00:03:33,967 --> 00:03:35,300 SOMETHING MADE VENUS 51 00:03:35,300 --> 00:03:38,067 DIVERGE RADICALLY FROM THE HISTORY OF THE EARTH. 52 00:03:38,067 --> 00:03:41,267 VENUS TOOK A DEFINITE TURN TO THE DARK SIDE A LONG TIME AGO. 53 00:03:41,267 --> 00:03:45,667 VENUS IS A HELLHOLE, OUR EVIL TWIN. 54 00:03:47,767 --> 00:03:51,667 Narrator: TODAY, VENUS' SURFACE IS LIKE A FURNACE. 55 00:03:54,133 --> 00:03:57,100 Dr. Plait: IT'S 900 DEGREES FAHRENHEIT ON THE SURFACE. 56 00:03:57,100 --> 00:03:59,567 IT'S HOT ENOUGH TO MELT, ACTUALLY, SOME METALS, 57 00:03:59,567 --> 00:04:01,267 SO YOU WOULDN'T STAND A CHANCE. 58 00:04:01,267 --> 00:04:05,067 Narrator: VENUS IS A GREENHOUSE WORLD. 59 00:04:05,067 --> 00:04:08,400 ITS ATMOSPHERE IS THICK WITH CARBON DIOXIDE. 60 00:04:08,400 --> 00:04:10,333 [ THUNDER CRASHING ] 61 00:04:13,633 --> 00:04:18,200 IT TRAPS HEAT FROM THE SUN LIKE A BLANKET. 62 00:04:18,200 --> 00:04:21,233 THESE ACTUAL IMAGES OF VENUS' SURFACE 63 00:04:21,233 --> 00:04:24,400 REVEAL A BARREN, SUPERHEATED WASTELAND. 64 00:04:28,067 --> 00:04:31,900 VENUS' THICK BLANKET OF CO2 KILLED THE PLANET. 65 00:04:37,700 --> 00:04:41,300 THE CO2 CAME FROM VOLCANOES. 66 00:04:46,933 --> 00:04:49,533 ORBITING SPACE PROBES GAVE THE FIRST CLUES. 67 00:04:51,800 --> 00:04:55,500 RADAR PUNCHED THROUGH VENUS' THICK CLOUDS... 68 00:04:57,567 --> 00:05:02,833 ...AND REVEALED VOLCANIC FORMATIONS ACROSS THE PLANET... 69 00:05:10,067 --> 00:05:14,833 ...LIKE FORMATIONS WE ALSO SEE RIGHT HERE ON EARTH -- 70 00:05:14,833 --> 00:05:17,933 THE SHIELD VOLCANOES OF HAWAII. 71 00:05:20,100 --> 00:05:24,367 SHIELD VOLCANOES GET THEIR NAME FROM THEIR ROUND, FLAT SHAPE. 72 00:05:27,400 --> 00:05:32,067 THESE VOLCANOES OOZE. 73 00:05:32,067 --> 00:05:36,367 BUT THEY OOZE FOR THOUSANDS OF YEARS. 74 00:05:36,367 --> 00:05:40,833 ONCE WE WERE ABLE TO MAP THE ENTIRE SURFACE OF VENUS 75 00:05:40,833 --> 00:05:42,767 USING CLOUD-PENETRATING RADAR, 76 00:05:42,767 --> 00:05:44,633 WE STARTED TO STUDY THE LANDFORMS THERE, 77 00:05:44,633 --> 00:05:46,800 AND WE SAW A LOT THAT WAS ACTUALLY VERY FAMILIAR. 78 00:05:46,800 --> 00:05:49,333 IN PARTICULAR, WE SAW GIANT SHIELD VOLCANOES 79 00:05:49,333 --> 00:05:52,100 THAT ARE VERY SIMILAR TO THE SHIELD VOLCANOES HERE IN HAWAII. 80 00:05:52,100 --> 00:05:55,233 Narrator: THE RADAR IMAGES OF VENUS 81 00:05:55,233 --> 00:06:00,067 WERE DEAD RINGERS FOR THE SHIELD VOLCANOES ON HAWAII. 82 00:06:00,067 --> 00:06:04,933 SOMETIME IN THE PAST, VENUS HAD VOLCANOES. 83 00:06:07,567 --> 00:06:12,300 FOR THE FIRST TIME, WE HAD A PICTURE OF VENUS REVEALED, 84 00:06:12,300 --> 00:06:15,233 AND, BOY, WERE WE SHOCKED. 85 00:06:15,233 --> 00:06:20,533 WE FOUND A SCARRED SURFACE, A VOLCANIC SURFACE. 86 00:06:20,533 --> 00:06:24,067 THERE ARE AT LEAST A THOUSAND VOLCANOES THAT ARE VERY LARGE 87 00:06:24,067 --> 00:06:27,067 AND MAYBE TENS OR EVEN HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS OF SMALLER ONES. 88 00:06:29,900 --> 00:06:34,867 Narrator: 3/4 OF VENUS' SURFACE IS LAVA PLAINS, 89 00:06:34,867 --> 00:06:38,900 EVIDENCE OF AN ANCIENT CATACLYSM. 90 00:06:38,900 --> 00:06:43,167 THIS COULD HAVE BEEN A HOME FOR LIFE. 91 00:06:43,167 --> 00:06:46,833 INSTEAD, IT WAS ENGULFED BY FIRE. 92 00:06:46,833 --> 00:06:51,567 VOLCANOES BELCHED TRILLIONS OF TONS OF CARBON DIOXIDE 93 00:06:51,567 --> 00:06:53,833 INTO VENUS' ATMOSPHERE. 94 00:06:56,833 --> 00:06:58,933 TEMPERATURES SOARED. 95 00:06:58,933 --> 00:07:01,200 THE SEAS BOILED DRY. 96 00:07:01,200 --> 00:07:05,100 A RUNAWAY GREENHOUSE PROCESS BEGAN. 97 00:07:05,100 --> 00:07:06,867 Dr, Thaller: ON EARTH, CARBON DIOXIDE 98 00:07:06,867 --> 00:07:08,567 IS ABLE TO ABSORB INTO THE ROCKS. 99 00:07:08,567 --> 00:07:10,667 IT'S ABLE TO ABSORB INTO THE OCEAN. 100 00:07:10,667 --> 00:07:12,133 BUT ON VENUS, YOU HAVE NO WATER, 101 00:07:12,133 --> 00:07:13,733 AND IT'S NOW SO HOT 102 00:07:13,733 --> 00:07:16,500 THE CARBON DIOXIDE CAN'T EVEN COMBINE WITH THE ROCKS. 103 00:07:16,500 --> 00:07:20,400 SO AS CARBON DIOXIDE WAS RELEASED INTO THE ATMOSPHERE 104 00:07:20,400 --> 00:07:22,467 BY VOLCANOES A LONG TIME AGO, 105 00:07:22,467 --> 00:07:25,067 OVER TIME, THERE WAS LESS AND LESS OF A METHOD 106 00:07:25,067 --> 00:07:26,900 TO TAKE IT BACK OUT OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 107 00:07:31,200 --> 00:07:34,267 Narrator: IF VENUS EVER HAD LIFE, 108 00:07:34,267 --> 00:07:37,733 VOLCANOES STERILIZED THE ENTIRE WORLD. 109 00:07:42,733 --> 00:07:48,067 EARTH REMAINS THE ONLY LIVING WORLD WE KNOW OF. 110 00:07:48,067 --> 00:07:49,900 THAT MAY CHANGE. 111 00:07:51,367 --> 00:07:54,633 THIS IS THE GAS GIANT JUPITER, 112 00:07:54,633 --> 00:07:57,400 ITS MOONS FROZEN AND DEAD... 113 00:07:59,367 --> 00:08:00,767 ...OR SO WE THOUGHT. 114 00:08:00,767 --> 00:08:05,633 LOOK CLOSER, AND A MYSTERY EMERGES... 115 00:08:08,667 --> 00:08:15,233 ...A CLOUD HANGING OVER A COLD AND LIFELESS WORLD. 116 00:08:15,233 --> 00:08:17,733 [ RUMBLING ] 117 00:08:29,700 --> 00:08:33,167 Narrator: ON VENUS, 118 00:08:33,167 --> 00:08:37,800 VOLCANOES TURNED AN EARTH-LIKE WORLD INTO A SUPERHEATED HELL. 119 00:08:39,400 --> 00:08:42,333 FINDING VOLCANOES ON AN EARTH-LIKE WORLD 120 00:08:42,333 --> 00:08:45,767 WAS NO SURPRISE. 121 00:08:45,767 --> 00:08:50,567 BUT SPOTTING VOLCANOES ON A MOON WAS A SHOCK. 122 00:08:50,567 --> 00:08:51,933 [ STATIC CRACKLES ] 123 00:08:51,933 --> 00:08:55,200 IN MARCH 1979, 124 00:08:55,200 --> 00:08:56,667 THE VOYAGER 1 SPACE PROBE 125 00:08:56,667 --> 00:09:01,700 GAVE US OUR FIRST CLOSE-UP VIEW OF JUPITER'S TINY MOON IO... 126 00:09:01,700 --> 00:09:03,767 [ WHIRRING ] 127 00:09:03,767 --> 00:09:07,233 ...A WORLD WE ONCE THOUGHT COLD AND DEAD. 128 00:09:10,533 --> 00:09:12,733 Dr. Plait: AND THEY SAW SOMETHING REALLY WEIRD. 129 00:09:12,733 --> 00:09:15,267 THEY SAW THIS ARC NEXT TO THE MOON, 130 00:09:15,267 --> 00:09:16,467 AND IT LOOKED ALMOST 131 00:09:16,467 --> 00:09:18,833 AS IF LIKE THERE WAS ANOTHER MOON BEHIND IT. 132 00:09:18,833 --> 00:09:20,400 Kaku: AND WE SCRATCHED OUR HEADS AND SAID, 133 00:09:20,400 --> 00:09:21,733 "WELL, WHAT COULD THAT BE? 134 00:09:21,733 --> 00:09:26,833 EVERYBODY KNOWS THAT IO IS DEAD, BORING, UNINTERESTING." 135 00:09:26,833 --> 00:09:29,733 AND THEN PEOPLE REALIZED, "OH, MY GOD. 136 00:09:29,733 --> 00:09:32,267 IT'S A VOLCANIC ERUPTION." 137 00:09:32,267 --> 00:09:35,233 WE FOUND THAT IT'S COVERED WITH VOLCANOES. 138 00:09:35,233 --> 00:09:37,467 IT IS TREMENDOUSLY GEOLOGICALLY ACTIVE. 139 00:09:37,467 --> 00:09:40,100 THERE ARE VOLCANOES ERUPTING ALL THE TIME. 140 00:09:40,100 --> 00:09:42,433 AND WHAT THEY'RE ERUPTING IS A LOT OF SULFUR, 141 00:09:42,433 --> 00:09:43,833 AND IT GETS VERY HOT. 142 00:09:43,833 --> 00:09:46,600 AND SULFUR, WHEN IT CHANGES TEMPERATURE, CHANGES COLOR. 143 00:09:46,600 --> 00:09:49,067 IT CAN BE RED OR ORANGE OR YELLOW OR BLACK. 144 00:09:49,067 --> 00:09:51,367 AND SO THESE PICTURES OF THE FACE OF IO 145 00:09:51,367 --> 00:09:52,633 MAKE IT LOOK LIKE A PIZZA 146 00:09:52,633 --> 00:09:55,133 COVERED WITH DIFFERENT KINDS OF CHEESE AND OLIVES 147 00:09:55,133 --> 00:09:57,633 WHERE THE LITTLE BLACK SPOTS ARE. 148 00:09:57,633 --> 00:10:00,633 Narrator: IO IS NOT DEAD. 149 00:10:00,633 --> 00:10:04,500 IT'S ALIVE AND KICKING. 150 00:10:04,500 --> 00:10:08,000 IT HAS OVER 400 ACTIVE VOLCANOES. 151 00:10:12,000 --> 00:10:17,000 THE LARGEST, PELE, ERUPTS FROM A GIGANTIC LAVA LAKE. 152 00:10:19,200 --> 00:10:23,167 IT REACHES NEARLY 250 MILES INTO SPACE. 153 00:10:25,567 --> 00:10:27,667 IF WE COULD STAND ON THE EDGE OF THAT LAVA LAKE 154 00:10:27,667 --> 00:10:31,200 AND WATCH THAT PLUME SHOOTING OFF INTO THE BLACKNESS OF SPACE, 155 00:10:31,200 --> 00:10:34,433 THAT WOULD BE AN INCREDIBLE SIGHT. 156 00:10:39,800 --> 00:10:45,900 Narrator: PELE'S ERUPTIONS ARE SO HUGE BECAUSE IO IS SO SMALL. 157 00:10:45,900 --> 00:10:48,667 THERE'S NOTHING TO HOLD THE LAVA BACK -- 158 00:10:48,667 --> 00:10:52,467 VIRTUALLY NO ATMOSPHERE AND VERY LITTLE GRAVITY. 159 00:10:56,367 --> 00:10:57,900 THESE VAST ERUPTIONS 160 00:10:57,900 --> 00:11:01,733 MAKE EARTH VOLCANOES LOOK LIKE FIRECRACKERS. 161 00:11:01,733 --> 00:11:03,600 [ RUMBLING ] 162 00:11:06,400 --> 00:11:11,600 HOW CAN SUCH A TINY MOON BE SO VOLCANIC? 163 00:11:11,600 --> 00:11:15,067 THE ANSWER IS JUPITER. 164 00:11:15,067 --> 00:11:19,067 JUST AS THE MOON RAISES TIDES IN EARTH'S OCEANS, 165 00:11:19,067 --> 00:11:23,067 JUPITER RAISES TIDES ON IO -- 166 00:11:23,067 --> 00:11:25,733 TIDES OF SOLID ROCK. 167 00:11:29,133 --> 00:11:32,600 IO'S ORBIT AROUND JUPITER IS NOT A CIRCLE. 168 00:11:32,600 --> 00:11:34,467 SOMETIMES, IT'S CLOSER. 169 00:11:34,467 --> 00:11:36,833 SOMETIMES, FARTHER AWAY. 170 00:11:38,500 --> 00:11:42,833 JUPITER GIVES IO A GRAVITATIONAL POUNDING. 171 00:11:42,833 --> 00:11:44,600 Dr. Plait: AND SO, JUPITER'S GRAVITY 172 00:11:44,600 --> 00:11:46,900 PULLS ON IT A LITTLE BIT HARDER AND A LITTLE BIT WEAKER. 173 00:11:46,900 --> 00:11:50,533 AND WHAT HAPPENS IS THE MOON STRETCHES, LIKE THIS. 174 00:11:50,533 --> 00:11:51,867 IT'S CALLED A TIDAL FORCE. 175 00:11:51,867 --> 00:11:53,200 AND IT DOESN'T STRETCH THIS MUCH -- 176 00:11:53,200 --> 00:11:54,500 IT'S ONLY A LITTLE BIT. 177 00:11:54,500 --> 00:11:57,067 BUT, IN FACT, IT'S ENOUGH TO HEAT IT UP. 178 00:11:57,067 --> 00:11:58,467 IT'S JUST FRICTION. 179 00:11:58,467 --> 00:12:00,633 IT'S THE SAME WAY WHEN YOU RUB YOUR HANDS TOGETHER REALLY FAST, 180 00:12:00,633 --> 00:12:01,633 THEY BEGIN TO FEEL WARM. 181 00:12:01,633 --> 00:12:02,633 FRICTION CREATES HEAT. 182 00:12:02,633 --> 00:12:05,267 Narrator: JUPITER'S GRAVITY 183 00:12:05,267 --> 00:12:07,833 STRETCHES AND SQUEEZES IO. 184 00:12:07,833 --> 00:12:09,833 IN EVERY TWO-DAY ORBIT, 185 00:12:09,833 --> 00:12:14,767 THE GROUND RISES AND FALLS BY NEARLY 300 FEET. 186 00:12:17,600 --> 00:12:22,400 THIS PUMMELING GENERATES INTENSE HEAT AND GIGANTIC PRESSURE. 187 00:12:26,167 --> 00:12:29,500 WHEREVER THERE'S A WEAK PART IN THE CRUST, THE LAVA RUSHES OUT. 188 00:12:29,500 --> 00:12:32,733 SO THE VOLCANISM IS ON A PLANETARY SCALE. 189 00:12:32,733 --> 00:12:33,967 UNLIKE HERE ON EARTH, 190 00:12:33,967 --> 00:12:35,833 WHERE THERE ARE CERTAIN BITS THAT ARE ACTIVE 191 00:12:35,833 --> 00:12:37,867 AROUND THE PLATES OR IN WEAK SPOTS, 192 00:12:37,867 --> 00:12:42,100 THIS IS AN ENTIRE MOON THAT'S ONE ACTIVE HOT SPOT. 193 00:12:42,100 --> 00:12:45,567 Narrator: THANKS TO THE INCREDIBLE POWER OF GRAVITY, 194 00:12:45,567 --> 00:12:48,567 IO IS THE MOST VOLCANICALLY ACTIVE WORLD 195 00:12:48,567 --> 00:12:50,400 IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 196 00:12:50,400 --> 00:12:54,067 THE VOLCANISM ON IO TAUGHT US SOMETHING NEW. 197 00:12:54,067 --> 00:12:57,133 IT TAUGHT US THAT INTERNAL SOURCES OF ENERGY 198 00:12:57,133 --> 00:12:59,100 CAN DRIVE VOLCANISM 199 00:12:59,100 --> 00:13:01,867 IN A WAY THAT'S DIFFERENT FROM THAT ON EARTH. 200 00:13:01,867 --> 00:13:04,333 IN OUTER SPACE, TIDAL FORCES, 201 00:13:04,333 --> 00:13:07,967 THE DIFFERENTIAL SQUEEZING OF THE MOONS OF A GAS GIANT, 202 00:13:07,967 --> 00:13:11,333 CAN ALSO CREATE VOLCANIC ACTIVITY -- 203 00:13:11,333 --> 00:13:13,833 THAT WAS A GAME-CHANGER. 204 00:13:18,533 --> 00:13:24,067 Narrator: IO IS A LAVA WORLD, SUPERHEATED AND VIOLENT. 205 00:13:24,067 --> 00:13:28,700 IT'S HARD TO IMAGINE ANYTHING SURVIVING THERE. 206 00:13:28,700 --> 00:13:34,667 YET THE VOLCANIC PRINCIPLE HERE IS THE SAME AS ON EARTH -- 207 00:13:34,667 --> 00:13:38,867 PRESSURIZED, SUPERHEATED MAGMA BELOW THE SURFACE 208 00:13:38,867 --> 00:13:42,200 BLASTS THROUGH FISSURES IN THE CRUST. 209 00:13:42,200 --> 00:13:46,467 BUT NOT ALL VOLCANOES NEED MAGMA. 210 00:13:46,467 --> 00:13:49,233 THEY DON'T EVEN NEED TO BE HOT. 211 00:13:52,933 --> 00:13:54,667 [ RUMBLING ] 212 00:13:59,167 --> 00:14:04,633 TRAVEL OUT PAST JUPITER INTO THE OUTER SOLAR SYSTEM, 213 00:14:04,633 --> 00:14:08,433 AND IT GETS COLD -- REALLY COLD. 214 00:14:10,400 --> 00:14:13,400 THE DISTANT MOON TRITON IS SO COLD 215 00:14:13,400 --> 00:14:17,133 THAT MUCH OF ITS TENUOUS ATMOSPHERE CAN FREEZE SOLID. 216 00:14:19,800 --> 00:14:23,667 YET THERE ARE VOLCANOES HERE -- 217 00:14:23,667 --> 00:14:27,900 VOLCANOES THAT MAY HOLD THE SECRET OF ALIEN LIFE. 218 00:14:36,067 --> 00:14:37,767 [ RUMBLING ] 219 00:14:42,567 --> 00:14:46,633 Narrator: WE THINK OF VOLCANOES AS MOUNTAINS OF SOLID ROCK. 220 00:14:54,533 --> 00:14:59,100 DEEP BENEATH, ROCK IS SO HOT AND PRESSURIZED 221 00:14:59,100 --> 00:15:03,267 THAT IT BURSTS VIOLENTLY OUT AS LAVA. 222 00:15:09,600 --> 00:15:12,467 BUT NOT ALL VOLCANOES WORK THIS WAY. 223 00:15:15,433 --> 00:15:18,267 THERE ARE VOLCANOES ON OTHER WORLDS 224 00:15:18,267 --> 00:15:20,900 THAT DON'T USE MOLTEN ROCK AT ALL. 225 00:15:20,900 --> 00:15:26,833 RIGHT AT THE FRONTIERS OF THE SUN'S PLANETARY SYSTEM, 226 00:15:26,833 --> 00:15:30,133 TRITON ORBITS THE ICE GIANT NEPTUNE. 227 00:15:31,967 --> 00:15:34,867 2 1/2 BILLION MILES FROM THE SUN, 228 00:15:34,867 --> 00:15:39,767 THE TEMPERATURE IS A FRIGID 390 DEGREES BELOW ZERO. 229 00:15:43,367 --> 00:15:47,067 WHEN NASA's VOYAGER PROBE FLEW PAST, 230 00:15:47,067 --> 00:15:51,400 IT REVEALED A WORLD COVERED MOSTLY WITH FROZEN NITROGEN ICE. 231 00:15:51,400 --> 00:15:52,433 [ STATIC HISSES ] 232 00:15:54,300 --> 00:15:57,967 BUT THE PROBE FOUND SOMETHING ELSE. 233 00:15:57,967 --> 00:16:01,333 Dr. Thaller: WHEN VOYAGER FLEW BY, IT SAW THESE BLACK SMUDGES, 234 00:16:01,333 --> 00:16:03,900 AND ALL OF THE SMUDGES WERE GOING IN ONE DIRECTION, 235 00:16:03,900 --> 00:16:05,567 ALMOST AS IF THERE WAS A WIND 236 00:16:05,567 --> 00:16:08,800 BLOWING DARK MATERIAL, DUST, IN ONE DIRECTION. 237 00:16:08,800 --> 00:16:11,833 Narrator: SIGNS OF ACTIVITY 238 00:16:11,833 --> 00:16:15,867 ON A WORLD SO COLD, IT FREEZES NITROGEN -- 239 00:16:15,867 --> 00:16:20,300 VOLCANOES AT ALMOST 400 DEGREES BELOW ZERO. 240 00:16:26,333 --> 00:16:28,800 FORGET MOLTEN ROCK. 241 00:16:28,800 --> 00:16:32,633 TRITON SPEWS OUT A MIXTURE OF NITROGEN AND MOON DUST. 242 00:16:38,200 --> 00:16:40,900 Dr. Thaller: AND THE GEYSER NOT ONLY HAS LIQUID NITROGEN, 243 00:16:40,900 --> 00:16:42,133 WHICH IS IN A FLUID FORM, 244 00:16:42,133 --> 00:16:44,100 BUT, ALSO, SORT OF DUSTY STUFF THAT'S LIGHTER, 245 00:16:44,100 --> 00:16:46,700 THAT CAN EVEN GO FARTHER IN THE WEAK WINDS. 246 00:16:46,700 --> 00:16:50,300 SO YOU HAVE THIS WONDERFUL SORT OF DOUBLE PLUME OF AN ICY AREA 247 00:16:50,300 --> 00:16:52,200 AND THEN A DARKER, SMUDGY AREA, 248 00:16:52,200 --> 00:16:54,500 BASICALLY MADE OF DUST, LIKE MOON DUST. 249 00:16:54,500 --> 00:16:58,933 Narrator: TRITON'S SURFACE IS NITROGEN ICE. 250 00:16:58,933 --> 00:17:02,367 UNDERNEATH, THERE ARE LAKES OF LIQUID NITROGEN. 251 00:17:02,367 --> 00:17:04,533 HOW? 252 00:17:04,533 --> 00:17:08,900 SCIENTISTS BELIEVE IT'S BECAUSE NITROGEN ICE LETS LIGHT IN, 253 00:17:08,900 --> 00:17:11,133 BUT DOESN'T LET HEAT OUT. 254 00:17:11,133 --> 00:17:13,633 [ ICE CRACKING ] 255 00:17:13,633 --> 00:17:15,733 THERE'S ALMOST A BIT OF A GREENHOUSE EFFECT 256 00:17:15,733 --> 00:17:17,067 GOING ON ON TRITON, 257 00:17:17,067 --> 00:17:19,967 THAT THERE'S A LAYER OF NITROGEN ICE THAT'S TRANSPARENT. 258 00:17:19,967 --> 00:17:22,567 AND JUST LIKE A GREENHOUSE HERE ON EARTH, WHEN YOU HAVE GLASS, 259 00:17:22,567 --> 00:17:24,300 LIGHT CAN PASS THROUGH IT, 260 00:17:24,300 --> 00:17:26,900 BUT THEN THE HEAT IS TRAPPED BY THE GLASS. 261 00:17:26,900 --> 00:17:31,200 Narrator: THE SUN SHINES THROUGH THE SURFACE 262 00:17:31,200 --> 00:17:33,367 AND WARMS THE NITROGEN BENEATH. 263 00:17:38,333 --> 00:17:39,700 JUST A FEW DEGREES 264 00:17:39,700 --> 00:17:43,400 IS ALL IT TAKES TO TURN NITROGEN ICE INTO GAS. 265 00:17:46,133 --> 00:17:48,900 A TEMPERATURE GRADIENT, A CHANGE IN THAT TEMPERATURE -- 266 00:17:48,900 --> 00:17:50,267 THAT'S WHAT'S IMPORTANT. 267 00:17:50,267 --> 00:17:52,500 AND THAT'S ENOUGH TO MELT THE NITROGEN 268 00:17:52,500 --> 00:17:53,967 UNDERNEATH THE SURFACE ON TRITON 269 00:17:53,967 --> 00:17:56,133 AND HAVE IT BURST THROUGH AS A GEYSER. 270 00:18:01,600 --> 00:18:04,067 Narrator: THIS IS A CRYOVOLCANO, 271 00:18:04,067 --> 00:18:06,467 SO COLD THAT THE MATERIAL IT ERUPTS 272 00:18:06,467 --> 00:18:09,400 WOULD FREEZE WATER AS HARD AS ROCK. 273 00:18:13,500 --> 00:18:17,733 THE SOLAR SYSTEM IS MORE ACTIVE THAN WE EVER IMAGINED. 274 00:18:20,867 --> 00:18:25,233 WE HAVE FOUND WEIRD ERUPTIONS ON MANY PLANETS AND MOONS. 275 00:18:29,400 --> 00:18:31,667 BUT SO FAR, THE ONLY WORLD 276 00:18:31,667 --> 00:18:35,867 WHERE VOLCANOES ARE LINKED TO LIFE IS OURS... 277 00:18:35,867 --> 00:18:37,733 OR SO WE THOUGHT. 278 00:18:44,433 --> 00:18:48,300 THIS IS EUROPA. 279 00:18:48,300 --> 00:18:53,167 IT ORBITS JUPITER NEARLY 500 MILLION MILES FROM THE SUN, 280 00:18:53,167 --> 00:18:57,800 A FROZEN 2,000-MILE-WIDE ROCK-HARD BALL OF ICE. 281 00:19:00,333 --> 00:19:04,367 FROM A DISTANCE, ITS SURFACE LOOKS SMOOTH. 282 00:19:04,367 --> 00:19:07,433 UP CLOSE, IT'S A DIFFERENT STORY. 283 00:19:09,433 --> 00:19:13,600 JUPITER'S ENORMOUS GRAVITY GIVES EUROPA A POUNDING, 284 00:19:13,600 --> 00:19:17,367 JUST LIKE ITS NEIGHBOR, IO. 285 00:19:17,367 --> 00:19:19,933 THE SURFACE HEAVES AND FLEXES, 286 00:19:19,933 --> 00:19:24,433 CREATING RIDGES AND DEEP CREVICES. 287 00:19:24,433 --> 00:19:28,367 WHEN WE FIRST GOT CLOSE-UP IMAGES OF JUPITER'S MOON EUROPA, 288 00:19:28,367 --> 00:19:30,500 THEY LOOKED A LITTLE FAMILIAR, 289 00:19:30,500 --> 00:19:32,500 AND IT TURNS OUT IT LOOKS LIKE ICE FLOES 290 00:19:32,500 --> 00:19:34,933 THAT YOU SEE WHEN YOU FLY OVER THE ARCTIC. 291 00:19:34,933 --> 00:19:37,900 AND IT TURNS OUT IT'S THE SAME THING. 292 00:19:37,900 --> 00:19:42,733 EUROPA HAS A SEVERAL-MILE-THICK SHELL OF ICE ON ITS SURFACE, 293 00:19:42,733 --> 00:19:47,200 AND BENEATH THAT IS A GLOBAL LIQUID OCEAN. 294 00:19:51,767 --> 00:19:55,400 Narrator: MAGNETIC READINGS SUGGEST EUROPA HAS AN OCEAN 295 00:19:55,400 --> 00:19:57,933 THAT'S A STAGGERING 60 MILES DEEP. 296 00:20:01,500 --> 00:20:05,333 JUPITER'S GRAVITATIONAL POUNDING 297 00:20:05,333 --> 00:20:09,833 HEATS THE ROCKY CORE AND MELTS THE ICE ABOVE. 298 00:20:09,833 --> 00:20:12,833 IT'S NOT UNREASONABLE TO THINK THAT, AS THE CORE 299 00:20:12,833 --> 00:20:17,033 IS BEING STRETCHED BY TIDES AND HEATED UP, POSSIBLY EVEN MOLTEN, 300 00:20:17,033 --> 00:20:18,167 THERE'S SOME BOUNDARY 301 00:20:18,167 --> 00:20:21,600 BETWEEN A HOT CORE AND A LIQUID-WATER OCEAN. 302 00:20:29,433 --> 00:20:31,467 Narrator: ON EARTH, 303 00:20:31,467 --> 00:20:36,033 UNDERWATER ERUPTIONS ARE SURROUNDED BY LIFE. 304 00:20:36,033 --> 00:20:39,867 THE SAME COULD HAPPEN ON EUROPA. 305 00:20:42,067 --> 00:20:47,033 HERE, THE DARKNESS IS TOTAL... 306 00:20:47,033 --> 00:20:51,900 THE PRESSURE -- A CRUSHING 2,000 EARTH ATMOSPHERES. 307 00:20:51,900 --> 00:20:56,367 A BRUTAL WORLD, BUT PERHAPS A CRADLE FOR LIFE. 308 00:20:58,633 --> 00:21:03,067 IF LIFE GOT OFF THE GROUND HERE ON EARTH, WHY NOT ON EUROPA? 309 00:21:03,067 --> 00:21:05,100 ALL THE INGREDIENTS ARE THERE -- 310 00:21:05,100 --> 00:21:07,967 AN ENERGY SOURCE -- VOLCANIC ACTIVITY -- 311 00:21:07,967 --> 00:21:10,867 A UNIVERSAL SOLVENT -- LIQUID WATER -- 312 00:21:10,867 --> 00:21:13,067 A RICH HYDROCARBON CHEMISTRY. 313 00:21:13,067 --> 00:21:15,933 WE HAVE THIS MIXING BOWL OF INGREDIENTS 314 00:21:15,933 --> 00:21:18,700 THAT HAPPENED ON THE EARTH 3 1/2 BILLION YEARS AGO, 315 00:21:18,700 --> 00:21:21,533 AND WE HAVE SIMILAR CONDITIONS ON EUROPA. 316 00:21:21,533 --> 00:21:22,867 SO SOME PEOPLE ARE SAYING, 317 00:21:22,867 --> 00:21:25,533 "IF IT HAPPENED HERE, WHY NOT THERE?" 318 00:21:28,700 --> 00:21:33,500 Narrator: LIFE ON EUROPA WOULD BE HARD, BUT NOT IMPOSSIBLE. 319 00:21:33,500 --> 00:21:37,700 ON EARTH, THERE IS LIFE AT EVERY EXTREME -- 320 00:21:37,700 --> 00:21:42,100 SEARING HEAT, CRUSHING PRESSURE, TOTAL DARKNESS. 321 00:21:43,800 --> 00:21:49,467 ALIEN LIFE ON EUROPA MIGHT LOOK SURPRISINGLY SIMILAR. 322 00:21:49,467 --> 00:21:53,267 IF LIFE EXISTS UNDER THE ICE COVER OF EUROPA, 323 00:21:53,267 --> 00:21:57,367 THEY WOULD BE AQUATIC, BUT WITHOUT EYES, 324 00:21:57,367 --> 00:21:58,833 BECAUSE THERE'S NO LIGHT TO SPEAK OF. 325 00:21:58,833 --> 00:22:00,100 THEY WOULD PROBABLY USE SONAR 326 00:22:00,100 --> 00:22:05,067 IN ORDER TO MAKE SENSE OF THEIR SURROUNDINGS -- 327 00:22:05,067 --> 00:22:10,767 ORGANISMS THAT LITERALLY FEED OFF THE ENERGY FROM THE VOLCANO. 328 00:22:10,767 --> 00:22:15,467 Narrator: ON EUROPA, VOLCANOES COULD BE THE SOURCE OF NEW LIFE. 329 00:22:18,067 --> 00:22:21,767 IT'S EVEN POSSIBLE THAT EUROPA IS NORMAL, 330 00:22:21,767 --> 00:22:26,633 THAT THIS IS HOW WORLDS WITH LIFE GENERALLY ARE. 331 00:22:26,633 --> 00:22:30,067 EARTH COULD BE THE EXCEPTION. 332 00:22:32,800 --> 00:22:35,300 THINK OF IT -- EUROPA COULD BE A TEMPLATE 333 00:22:35,300 --> 00:22:40,200 FOR BILLIONS OF MOONS OUT THERE THAT HAVE LIQUID OCEANS ON THEM. 334 00:22:40,200 --> 00:22:41,467 SO, ALL OF A SUDDEN, 335 00:22:41,467 --> 00:22:45,800 OUR HORIZONS HAVE EXPANDED SEVERAL BILLION TIMES 336 00:22:45,800 --> 00:22:48,167 BY LOOKING AT THE MOONS OF JUPITER. 337 00:22:48,167 --> 00:22:49,833 WHAT A SHOCK. 338 00:22:58,133 --> 00:23:03,067 Narrator: OUR SOLAR SYSTEM ALONE HAS OVER 170 MOONS. 339 00:23:03,067 --> 00:23:05,800 MULTIPLY THAT ACROSS THE UNIVERSE, 340 00:23:05,800 --> 00:23:09,400 AND THAT'S A LOT OF PLACES WHERE LIFE MIGHT TAKE HOLD. 341 00:23:11,600 --> 00:23:15,433 ALL IT TAKES IS LIQUID WATER AND A SOURCE OF ENERGY. 342 00:23:15,433 --> 00:23:19,500 POTENTIALLY, VOLCANOES PROVIDE BOTH. 343 00:23:21,400 --> 00:23:24,100 AND THEY ARE EVERYWHERE. 344 00:23:27,067 --> 00:23:31,367 THIS IS SATURN, TWICE AS FAR FROM THE SUN AS JUPITER. 345 00:23:33,100 --> 00:23:35,933 YET IT, TOO, HAS VOLCANIC MOONS. 346 00:23:37,833 --> 00:23:43,567 AND JUST LIKE JUPITER'S EUROPA, THESE MOONS COULD HARBOR LIFE. 347 00:23:59,367 --> 00:24:02,267 Narrator: THIS IS ONE OF THE STRANGEST WORLDS 348 00:24:02,267 --> 00:24:06,900 IN OUR SOLAR SYSTEM -- SATURN -- 349 00:24:06,900 --> 00:24:11,233 A RING SYSTEM 600,000 MILES WIDE, 350 00:24:11,233 --> 00:24:14,833 AN AMAZING 62 MOONS, 351 00:24:14,833 --> 00:24:17,400 AND ONE WITH A SECRET. 352 00:24:18,933 --> 00:24:22,300 ENCELADUS IS ONE OF SATURN'S SMALLER, MORE DISTANT MOONS. 353 00:24:22,300 --> 00:24:24,800 AND IT'S BEEN KNOWN FOR A LONG TIME THAT IT'S COVERED IN ICE, 354 00:24:24,800 --> 00:24:26,467 BECAUSE IT'S VERY BRIGHT, VERY REFLECTIVE. 355 00:24:26,467 --> 00:24:29,500 BUT WHEN THE CASSINI SPACECRAFT WENT THERE, 356 00:24:29,500 --> 00:24:31,533 IT DISCOVERED SOMETHING AMAZING. 357 00:24:31,533 --> 00:24:36,767 Narrator: THE CASSINI PROBE REVEALED SOMETHING INCREDIBLE -- 358 00:24:36,767 --> 00:24:41,767 NOT ON THE PLANET ITSELF, BUT ON ENCELADUS. 359 00:24:45,833 --> 00:24:51,767 BACKLIT BY THE SUN, A GIGANTIC PLUME BURSTS OUT INTO SPACE -- 360 00:24:51,767 --> 00:24:56,100 A SURE SIGN OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY. 361 00:24:56,100 --> 00:24:58,367 [ RUMBLING ] 362 00:25:03,067 --> 00:25:06,500 IT WAS AN AMAZING DISCOVERY, 363 00:25:06,500 --> 00:25:08,633 AND IT HELPED ANSWER A QUESTION 364 00:25:08,633 --> 00:25:11,867 THAT HAS PUZZLED SCIENTISTS FOR DECADES -- 365 00:25:11,867 --> 00:25:15,567 THE MYSTERY OF SATURN'S "E" RING. 366 00:25:18,700 --> 00:25:21,933 SATURN'S OUTERMOST RING IS VAST, 367 00:25:21,933 --> 00:25:25,700 ALMOST 200,000 MILES ACROSS, 368 00:25:25,700 --> 00:25:28,200 AND IT SHOULDN'T EXIST. 369 00:25:29,800 --> 00:25:32,800 THE ICE PARTICLES THAT MAKE UP MOST OF THE RING 370 00:25:32,800 --> 00:25:36,733 ARE TOO FAR FROM SATURN TO STAY IN ORBIT. 371 00:25:36,733 --> 00:25:39,933 THEY CONSTANTLY DRIFT AWAY INTO SPACE. 372 00:25:42,333 --> 00:25:46,233 SOMETHING REPLENISHES THE RING -- 373 00:25:46,233 --> 00:25:51,267 THE ICE VOLCANOES OF ENCELADUS. 374 00:25:51,267 --> 00:25:53,467 Dr. Plait: THOSE PLUMES 375 00:25:53,467 --> 00:25:55,633 THAT ARE EJECTED FROM ENCELADUS' SOUTH POLE -- 376 00:25:55,633 --> 00:25:57,867 IT TURNS OUT THAT THOSE ARE GOING INTO SPACE. 377 00:25:57,867 --> 00:25:59,433 AND THEY'RE NOT JUST GOING AWAY. 378 00:25:59,433 --> 00:26:03,200 THEY'RE FEEDING A RING AROUND SATURN, THE "E" RING. 379 00:26:05,433 --> 00:26:06,633 SO THIS LITTLE MOON 380 00:26:06,633 --> 00:26:09,633 IS GIVING SOMETHING BACK TO ITS PARENT PLANET. 381 00:26:18,633 --> 00:26:22,600 Narrator: WATER BLASTS FROM ENCELADUS' VOLCANOES, 382 00:26:22,600 --> 00:26:25,133 HITS THE VACUUM OF SPACE, 383 00:26:25,133 --> 00:26:29,733 AND INSTANTLY FREEZES INTO TINY ICE CRYSTALS, 384 00:26:29,733 --> 00:26:32,400 CREATING THE VAST "E" RING. 385 00:26:36,233 --> 00:26:39,467 ONE MYSTERY SOLVED. 386 00:26:39,467 --> 00:26:41,800 ANOTHER REPLACES IT. 387 00:26:41,800 --> 00:26:44,833 WHAT CREATES THE VOLCANIC PLUMES? 388 00:26:47,200 --> 00:26:50,867 CASSINI'S CAMERAS ZOOM IN ON THE MOON'S SOUTH POLE 389 00:26:50,867 --> 00:26:56,100 AND CAPTURE THESE HUGE CHASMS SCARRING THE SURFACE. 390 00:26:56,100 --> 00:26:59,100 THERE ARE THESE WONDERFULLY HUGE CRACKS 391 00:26:59,100 --> 00:27:00,867 AT THE SOUTH POLE OF ENCELADUS, 392 00:27:00,867 --> 00:27:02,967 AND AS ENCELADUS GOES AROUND SATURN, 393 00:27:02,967 --> 00:27:05,767 THESE CRACKS OPEN AND SHUT AS THE TIDES GO BY. 394 00:27:05,767 --> 00:27:07,933 NOW, THESE CRACKS ARE HUGE. 395 00:27:07,933 --> 00:27:09,733 THEY'RE HUNDREDS OF MILES LONG. 396 00:27:09,733 --> 00:27:13,167 AND WHEN THEY BEGIN TO OPEN, YOU WOULD HAVE THIS BIG CREVASSE 397 00:27:13,167 --> 00:27:16,133 OPENING AT MAYBE 100 MILES AN HOUR DOWN THE LENGTH OF THAT. 398 00:27:16,133 --> 00:27:18,567 IT'D BE INCREDIBLY SPECTACULAR. 399 00:27:18,567 --> 00:27:22,867 Narrator: HUGE GRAVITATIONAL FORCES 400 00:27:22,867 --> 00:27:27,067 CRACK THE SURFACE OPEN AND CLOSED AT ENORMOUS SPEEDS. 401 00:27:29,067 --> 00:27:32,067 LIKE EUROPA AND IO'S ORBITS 'ROUND JUPITER, 402 00:27:32,067 --> 00:27:35,833 ENCELADUS' ORBIT 'ROUND SATURN IS ELLIPTICAL. 403 00:27:39,867 --> 00:27:43,233 THIS HELPS GENERATE THE HEAT TO MELT ICE 404 00:27:43,233 --> 00:27:48,100 AND CREATE OCEANS OF WATER BENEATH THE SURFACE. 405 00:27:48,100 --> 00:27:50,433 Dr. Thaller: THE CONDITIONS OF THE WATER 406 00:27:50,433 --> 00:27:52,067 UNDERNEATH ENCELADUS' SURFACE 407 00:27:52,067 --> 00:27:53,500 ARE ABSOLUTELY PERFECT FOR LIFE. 408 00:27:53,500 --> 00:27:54,967 IT'S THE RIGHT TEMPERATURE. 409 00:27:54,967 --> 00:27:56,633 IT'D BE A GOOD PRESSURE FOR LIFE. 410 00:27:56,633 --> 00:27:59,400 LIQUID WATER WOULD BE JUST LIKE SEAWATER HERE ON EARTH. 411 00:27:59,400 --> 00:28:00,900 AND THE CHEMISTRY OF THE WATER 412 00:28:00,900 --> 00:28:02,733 WE SEE SHOOTING OUT OF THESE VENTS 413 00:28:02,733 --> 00:28:05,500 SUGGESTS THAT IT IS VERY SIMILAR -- THERE'S SALT. 414 00:28:05,500 --> 00:28:07,800 THERE'S ORGANIC MATERIAL IN IT, AS WELL. 415 00:28:07,800 --> 00:28:10,067 SO WE'VE IDENTIFIED A PLACE IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM 416 00:28:10,067 --> 00:28:12,300 WHERE THERE VERY WELL MAY BE LIFE RIGHT NOW. 417 00:28:17,767 --> 00:28:21,833 Narrator: CASSINI HAS DETECTED COMPLEX CARBON MOLECULES 418 00:28:21,833 --> 00:28:23,500 IN THE ICE PLUMES. 419 00:28:23,500 --> 00:28:26,567 COMBINED WITH LIQUID WATER, 420 00:28:26,567 --> 00:28:29,333 THEY SUGGEST THAT JUST MAYBE LIFE 421 00:28:29,333 --> 00:28:32,833 COULD SURVIVE DEEP WITHIN THIS ENIGMATIC MOON. 422 00:28:38,700 --> 00:28:41,500 ENCELADUS MAY NOT BE ALONE. 423 00:28:41,500 --> 00:28:45,767 ANOTHER OF SATURN'S MOONS MIGHT ALSO HARBOR LIFE -- 424 00:28:45,767 --> 00:28:51,233 TITAN, ONE OF THE LARGEST MOONS IN OUR SOLAR SYSTEM, 425 00:28:51,233 --> 00:28:54,367 THE ONLY MOON WITH A THICK ATMOSPHERE... 426 00:28:56,967 --> 00:28:58,933 ...A FROZEN WORLD -- 427 00:28:58,933 --> 00:29:03,500 ICE AS HARD AS ROCK, LAKES OF LIQUID METHANE. 428 00:29:05,500 --> 00:29:09,500 YET HERE, TOO, WE MIGHT FIND EVIDENCE OF VOLCANOES 429 00:29:09,500 --> 00:29:13,267 AND THE TANTALIZING PROSPECT OF ALIEN LIFE. 430 00:29:25,767 --> 00:29:29,600 Narrator: A RAGING INFERNO ON THE SURFACE OF IO, 431 00:29:29,600 --> 00:29:33,367 ERUPTIONS OF ICE AND NITROGEN ON TRITON... 432 00:29:35,267 --> 00:29:38,167 VOLCANOES ARE ONE OF THE MOST DESTRUCTIVE FORCES 433 00:29:38,167 --> 00:29:40,533 IN OUR UNIVERSE. 434 00:29:44,200 --> 00:29:50,067 BUT OUT OF ANNIHILATION COMES THE POSSIBILITY OF LIFE, 435 00:29:50,067 --> 00:29:55,833 EVEN HERE ON SATURN'S MYSTERIOUS MOON TITAN. 436 00:29:57,367 --> 00:30:02,067 IT'S 3,000 MILES ACROSS, 437 00:30:02,067 --> 00:30:05,300 LARGER THAN THE PLANET MERCURY. 438 00:30:05,300 --> 00:30:08,667 IT'S THE ONLY MOON IN OUR SOLAR SYSTEM 439 00:30:08,667 --> 00:30:11,667 WITH A THICK ATMOSPHERE. 440 00:30:11,667 --> 00:30:17,633 THERE IS WEATHER HERE -- STORMS, WINDS, RAIN, EVEN LAKES -- 441 00:30:17,633 --> 00:30:22,800 ALL SO COLD THAT LIQUID METHANE TAKES THE PLACE OF WATER. 442 00:30:23,967 --> 00:30:28,400 AND IT'S LOADED WITH CHEMICALS THAT LIFE NEEDS TO SURVIVE. 443 00:30:30,033 --> 00:30:32,267 TITAN HAS TURNED OUT TO BE ABSOLUTELY ONE 444 00:30:32,267 --> 00:30:35,267 OF THE MOST INTERESTING PLACES IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 445 00:30:35,267 --> 00:30:37,400 IT'S AN ACTIVE WORLD. 446 00:30:37,400 --> 00:30:40,033 IT'S THE ONLY MOON WITH A THICK ATMOSPHERE -- 447 00:30:40,033 --> 00:30:41,567 AN ATMOSPHERE VERY MUCH LIKE EARTH, 448 00:30:41,567 --> 00:30:43,067 BECAUSE IT'S MOSTLY NITROGEN, 449 00:30:43,067 --> 00:30:46,400 AND IT TURNS OUT, AN ATMOSPHERE LOADED WITH ORGANIC MOLECULES. 450 00:30:49,300 --> 00:30:52,200 Narrator: METHANE GAS HIGH IN TITAN'S ATMOSPHERE 451 00:30:52,200 --> 00:30:53,967 REACTS WITH SUNLIGHT 452 00:30:53,967 --> 00:30:57,767 AND CREATES THE KIND OF CHEMICALS LIFE DEPENDS ON. 453 00:31:00,433 --> 00:31:06,200 BUT IF SUNLIGHT CONVERTS METHANE INTO ORGANICS CONTINUOUSLY, 454 00:31:06,200 --> 00:31:08,700 WHY DOESN'T THE METHANE RUN OUT? 455 00:31:12,267 --> 00:31:13,733 THE ATMOSPHERE'S FULL OF METHANE, 456 00:31:13,733 --> 00:31:15,067 AND YET WE KNOW METHANE 457 00:31:15,067 --> 00:31:17,300 IS BEING DESTROYED BY SUNLIGHT ON A SHORT TIME SCALE, 458 00:31:17,300 --> 00:31:18,433 SO IT SHOULDN'T BE THERE. 459 00:31:18,433 --> 00:31:21,633 THERE NEEDS TO BE A SOURCE OF METHANE. 460 00:31:21,633 --> 00:31:23,233 Narrator: SOMETHING ON TITAN 461 00:31:23,233 --> 00:31:26,333 PUMPS OUT A CONTINUOUS SUPPLY OF METHANE. 462 00:31:28,533 --> 00:31:32,700 CASSINI HAS DETECTED WHAT LOOKS LIKE A CRATER. 463 00:31:32,700 --> 00:31:37,100 ITS INTERIOR IS AS DEEP AS THE GRAND CANYON. 464 00:31:37,100 --> 00:31:39,800 INFRARED CAMERAS REVEAL DIFFERENT TYPES 465 00:31:39,800 --> 00:31:43,867 OF MATERIALS SURROUNDING THE CRATER. 466 00:31:43,867 --> 00:31:48,767 SCIENTISTS BELIEVE THE GREEN AREAS COULD BE VOLCANIC, 467 00:31:48,767 --> 00:31:53,567 PERHAPS PLAINS OF LAVA EJECTED FROM TITAN'S INTERIOR. 468 00:31:57,567 --> 00:31:59,167 IF IT EXISTS, 469 00:31:59,167 --> 00:32:04,567 LAVA TITAN-STYLE IS A SUPERCHILLED ICY SLUSH. 470 00:32:05,733 --> 00:32:08,433 BUT COMPARED TO THE REST OF TITAN, 471 00:32:08,433 --> 00:32:11,867 EVEN ICE SLUSH IS SCALDING HOT. 472 00:32:11,867 --> 00:32:14,867 ON TITAN, THE HOT LIQUID SPEWING FROM VOLCANOES 473 00:32:14,867 --> 00:32:17,633 MIGHT BE AMMONIA OR WATER. 474 00:32:17,633 --> 00:32:20,067 NORMALLY, THOSE ARE FROZEN SOLID ON THE SURFACE, 475 00:32:20,067 --> 00:32:22,067 BUT IF THEY'RE HEATED BENEATH THE SURFACE SOMEHOW, 476 00:32:22,067 --> 00:32:23,767 THEY COULD ERUPT OUT. 477 00:32:23,767 --> 00:32:28,767 ON TITAN, WHAT COMES OUT OF VOLCANOES IS METHANE AND ETHANE, 478 00:32:28,767 --> 00:32:30,200 AND THAT'S PROBABLY THE REASON 479 00:32:30,200 --> 00:32:33,400 WHY WE HAVE THIS VERY THICK CLOUD COVER, 480 00:32:33,400 --> 00:32:35,433 THIS ORANGE HAZE AROUND TITAN. 481 00:32:35,433 --> 00:32:36,867 THIS HAZE 482 00:32:36,867 --> 00:32:40,333 PROBABLY CAME FROM OUTGASSING FROM THE VOLCANOES OF TITAN. 483 00:32:42,300 --> 00:32:47,200 EVEN FOR VOLCANOES ON A WORLD AS COLD AS TITAN, YOU NEED HEAT. 484 00:32:47,200 --> 00:32:51,500 THAT'S WHAT TURNS ICE INTO LIQUID AND GENERATES ERUPTIONS. 485 00:32:54,667 --> 00:32:58,767 ON TITAN, THAT HEAT HAS TWO SOURCES. 486 00:33:00,967 --> 00:33:04,433 RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS WARM THE INTERIOR. 487 00:33:07,400 --> 00:33:12,267 AND SATURN'S HUGE GRAVITY MASSAGES THE MOON, 488 00:33:12,267 --> 00:33:14,733 JUST LIKE ENCELADUS. 489 00:33:16,733 --> 00:33:19,367 THESE TWO FORCES GENERATE ENOUGH HEAT 490 00:33:19,367 --> 00:33:21,767 TO TURN ICE INTO WATER 491 00:33:21,767 --> 00:33:25,400 AND LIQUID METHANE TO GAS. 492 00:33:25,400 --> 00:33:28,800 WE THINK OF VOLCANOES AS BEING HOT AND ICE AS COLD, 493 00:33:28,800 --> 00:33:33,067 AND YET IF YOU'RE OUT ON TITAN, 494 00:33:33,067 --> 00:33:34,733 WHERE YOU'RE A BILLION MILES FROM THE SUN 495 00:33:34,733 --> 00:33:36,600 AND IT'S -- IT'S QUITE COLD, 496 00:33:36,600 --> 00:33:38,400 THEN THOSE FLOES 497 00:33:38,400 --> 00:33:41,333 OF JUST-BARELY-ABOVE-FREEZING WATER AMMONIA ICE -- 498 00:33:41,333 --> 00:33:43,367 THEY MIGHT BE THE HOTTEST THINGS AROUND. 499 00:33:43,367 --> 00:33:45,133 SO "HOT" IS A RELATIVE TERM, 500 00:33:45,133 --> 00:33:46,933 DEPENDING ON WHERE IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM YOU ARE. 501 00:33:50,667 --> 00:33:52,900 Narrator: COULD VOLCANOES ON TITAN 502 00:33:52,900 --> 00:33:56,567 GIVE LIFE A CHANCE TO SURVIVE HERE? 503 00:33:56,567 --> 00:33:59,467 LIFE AS WE KNOW IT NEEDS AN ATMOSPHERE... 504 00:34:02,300 --> 00:34:05,200 ...A SOLID SURFACE... 505 00:34:05,200 --> 00:34:07,067 LIQUID WATER... 506 00:34:07,067 --> 00:34:10,667 AND THE HEAT TO DRIVE CHEMICAL REACTIONS. 507 00:34:10,667 --> 00:34:15,867 ON TITAN, VOLCANOES COULD PROVIDE THEM ALL. 508 00:34:15,867 --> 00:34:20,300 IF YOU HAVE A VOLCANO ON TITAN, YOU'LL HAVE HEAT ADDED TO THAT, 509 00:34:20,300 --> 00:34:22,267 AND ALL OF A SUDDEN, YOU'LL HAVE LIQUID WATER 510 00:34:22,267 --> 00:34:24,633 SURROUNDED BY ORGANIC MATERIAL -- 511 00:34:24,633 --> 00:34:27,333 I MEAN, LITERALLY, ANYTHING YOU NEED FOR THE START OF LIFE. 512 00:34:27,333 --> 00:34:31,133 Narrator: IF LIFE DOES EXIST ON TITAN, 513 00:34:31,133 --> 00:34:34,133 IT WOULD BE TRULY ALIEN. 514 00:34:34,133 --> 00:34:37,933 IT WOULD BREATHE HYDROGEN IN PLACE OF OXYGEN, 515 00:34:37,933 --> 00:34:41,500 PERHAPS SWIMMING THROUGH LAKES OF LIQUID METHANE 516 00:34:41,500 --> 00:34:44,700 AT 300 DEGREES BELOW ZERO. 517 00:34:46,267 --> 00:34:48,467 Kaku: PERHAPS THERE ARE OCEANS OF ETHANE. 518 00:34:48,467 --> 00:34:50,333 PERHAPS THERE ARE TIDE POOLS 519 00:34:50,333 --> 00:34:54,500 AND PERHAPS VOLCANIC ACTIVITY AND HYDROTHERMAL ACTIVITY. 520 00:34:54,500 --> 00:34:56,333 PERHAPS THERE ARE HOT SPRINGS. 521 00:34:56,333 --> 00:34:58,200 PERHAPS VOLCANIC HEAT 522 00:34:58,200 --> 00:35:03,600 COULD GENERATE ENOUGH TO GET LIFE OFF THE GROUND IN TITAN. 523 00:35:03,600 --> 00:35:06,700 THAT'S A SPECULATION, BUT IT CAN'T BE RULED OUT. 524 00:35:08,967 --> 00:35:11,433 Narrator: BUT WE MAY NOT NEED TO TRAVEL THIS FAR 525 00:35:11,433 --> 00:35:13,800 TO FIND SIGNS OF LIFE. 526 00:35:13,800 --> 00:35:19,067 WE MAY FIND IT ON A VOLCANIC WORLD MUCH CLOSER TO HOME... 527 00:35:20,767 --> 00:35:24,400 ...THE RED PLANET, MARS. 528 00:35:37,633 --> 00:35:40,800 Narrator: VOLCANOES ARE EVERYWHERE 529 00:35:40,800 --> 00:35:42,733 ACROSS THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 530 00:35:45,133 --> 00:35:48,300 WORLDS LIKE IO, TITAN, AND TRITON 531 00:35:48,300 --> 00:35:52,067 ARE COMPLEX, DYNAMIC, AND VIOLENT. 532 00:35:55,500 --> 00:35:57,733 ONCE, WE THOUGHT THAT EARTH 533 00:35:57,733 --> 00:36:02,600 WAS THE ONLY PLANET WITH VOLCANOES AND WITH LIFE. 534 00:36:04,933 --> 00:36:07,267 NOW WE FIND VOLCANOES EVERYWHERE, 535 00:36:07,267 --> 00:36:11,267 BUT WE HAVE YET TO FIND ALIEN LIFE. 536 00:36:11,267 --> 00:36:16,733 VOLCANOES EMBODY THE SHEER POWER OF CREATION AND DESTRUCTION. 537 00:36:16,733 --> 00:36:18,367 THEY GO HAND IN HAND. 538 00:36:18,367 --> 00:36:21,133 IT IS LITERALLY TRUE THAT, IF THERE WEREN'T VOLCANOES HERE, 539 00:36:21,133 --> 00:36:22,767 WE WOULD NOT BE HERE EITHER. 540 00:36:22,767 --> 00:36:25,833 IN THE CALDRONS OF VOLCANOES IS THE ORIGIN OF LIFE. 541 00:36:29,067 --> 00:36:32,200 Narrator: VOLCANOES CREATE NEW LANDSCAPES, 542 00:36:32,200 --> 00:36:35,767 SEED THE ATMOSPHERE WITH COMPLEX CHEMICALS, 543 00:36:35,767 --> 00:36:39,667 REPLACE THE OLD WITH THE NEW. 544 00:36:42,067 --> 00:36:45,867 IF VOLCANOES ARE BOUND UP WITH THE PROCESSES OF LIFE, 545 00:36:45,867 --> 00:36:49,500 THEN WHERE IS THE LIFE ON OTHER WORLDS? 546 00:36:56,867 --> 00:37:00,867 PERHAPS THE ANSWER ORIGINATES IN DEEP TIME, 547 00:37:00,867 --> 00:37:03,067 WHEN THE SOLAR SYSTEM WAS YOUNG... 548 00:37:05,900 --> 00:37:10,867 ...ON A YOUNG PLANET MUCH LIKE OUR OWN. 549 00:37:10,867 --> 00:37:14,933 THIS IS MARS. 550 00:37:14,933 --> 00:37:20,600 3 BILLION YEARS AGO, IT HAD ACTIVE VOLCANOES. 551 00:37:20,600 --> 00:37:23,500 ONE STILL REMAINS -- 552 00:37:23,500 --> 00:37:26,767 THE LARGEST VOLCANO IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 553 00:37:29,567 --> 00:37:35,233 THE CLIFFS LEADING TO IT ARE OVER 6 MILES HIGH. 554 00:37:35,233 --> 00:37:40,233 MOUNT EVEREST WOULD SIT COMFORTABLY IN THEIR SHADOW, 555 00:37:40,233 --> 00:37:43,733 AND THOSE ARE JUST THE FOOTHILLS. 556 00:37:43,733 --> 00:37:49,700 THIS IS THE AWE-INSPIRING OLYMPUS MONS. 557 00:37:49,700 --> 00:37:53,533 IT COVERS AN AREA THE SIZE OF ARIZONA. 558 00:37:53,533 --> 00:37:58,733 ITS CRATER ALONE IS 53 MILES WIDE. 559 00:37:58,733 --> 00:38:03,433 A GOLIATH LIKE THIS TAKES MILLIONS OF YEARS TO BUILD, 560 00:38:03,433 --> 00:38:06,600 TIME THAT VOLCANOES HERE ON EARTH NEVER GET. 561 00:38:12,833 --> 00:38:16,067 ON EARTH, THE CRUST IS ALWAYS MOVING. 562 00:38:19,133 --> 00:38:21,167 [ CRACKING ] 563 00:38:21,167 --> 00:38:23,767 DEEP BELOW, A SINGLE HOT SPOT 564 00:38:23,767 --> 00:38:26,067 PUSHES MAGMA THROUGH THE SURFACE, 565 00:38:26,067 --> 00:38:29,267 BUILDING A NEW VOLCANIC ISLAND. 566 00:38:29,267 --> 00:38:33,933 BUT WHILE THE HOT SPOT STAYS STILL, THE SURFACE IS MOVING. 567 00:38:33,933 --> 00:38:37,700 THE NEW ISLAND MOVES AWAY FROM THE HOT SPOT, 568 00:38:37,700 --> 00:38:41,167 AND A NEW VOLCANIC ISLAND TAKES ITS PLACE. 569 00:38:44,267 --> 00:38:46,267 MARS IS DIFFERENT. 570 00:38:46,267 --> 00:38:49,833 THE CRUST IS LOCKED SOLID. 571 00:38:49,833 --> 00:38:52,867 ON MARS, THERE'S JUST NONE OF THAT TECTONIC ACTIVITY. 572 00:38:52,867 --> 00:38:55,100 THE CRUST IS ONE BIG SOLID PLATE, 573 00:38:55,100 --> 00:38:56,467 AND SO IF THERE'S A HOT SPOT, 574 00:38:56,467 --> 00:38:59,333 IT JUST SITS THERE AND BUILDS AND BUILDS AND BUILDS. 575 00:38:59,333 --> 00:39:01,767 AND YOU GET A BIGGER AND BIGGER AND BIGGER VOLCANO. 576 00:39:01,767 --> 00:39:04,433 AND THAT'S WHY OLYMPUS MONS IS SO HUGE. 577 00:39:12,200 --> 00:39:14,333 Narrator: OLYMPUS MONS TODAY 578 00:39:14,333 --> 00:39:18,233 IS A FROZEN RELIC OF A DISTANT, WARMER PAST. 579 00:39:23,167 --> 00:39:25,800 MARS' SHRUNKEN ATMOSPHERE 580 00:39:25,800 --> 00:39:31,267 MEANS THAT OLYMPUS NOW REACHES ALMOST INTO SPACE -- 581 00:39:31,267 --> 00:39:36,967 A TRUE COLOSSUS, AN EXTINCT VOLCANO ON A DYING WORLD. 582 00:39:43,633 --> 00:39:46,733 BUT MARS' ANCIENT VOLCANIC TERRAIN 583 00:39:46,733 --> 00:39:49,733 COULD, ONE DAY, HARBOR LIFE AGAIN. 584 00:39:52,733 --> 00:39:56,600 THE EVIDENCE IS RIGHT HERE ON EARTH. 585 00:39:59,300 --> 00:40:00,967 ON HAWAII, VOLCANOES 586 00:40:00,967 --> 00:40:07,467 HAVE CREATED MYSTERIOUS TUNNELS CALLED LAVA TUBES, 587 00:40:07,467 --> 00:40:09,233 CHANNELS LEFT BEHIND 588 00:40:09,233 --> 00:40:12,933 WHEN TORRENTS OF MOLTEN ROCK SURGE INTO THE SEA. 589 00:40:17,367 --> 00:40:20,600 BUT SOME ARE NOW EMPTY, 590 00:40:20,600 --> 00:40:23,200 AND THAT OFFERS US AN OPPORTUNITY. 591 00:40:26,233 --> 00:40:30,267 LAVA TUBES ARE FORMED WHEN YOU HAVE AN UNDERGROUND RIVER 592 00:40:30,267 --> 00:40:36,067 OF HOT BASALTIC LAVA, 2,000-DEGREE MAGMA, MOLTEN ROCK. 593 00:40:36,067 --> 00:40:40,933 AND PICTURE IT LIKE A FROZEN RIVER OF WATER, 594 00:40:40,933 --> 00:40:43,000 WITH THE ICE CRUST FORMING ON THE TOP. 595 00:40:43,000 --> 00:40:44,067 IT'S THE SAME THING, 596 00:40:44,067 --> 00:40:46,700 ONLY HERE, THE CRUST IS SOLID ROCK 597 00:40:46,700 --> 00:40:49,733 AND THE RIVER KEEPS FLOWING UNDERNEATH AND MAKES THIS CAVE, 598 00:40:49,733 --> 00:40:51,167 THIS LAVA TUBE. 599 00:40:51,167 --> 00:40:54,267 Narrator: EXTRAORDINARY RECENT IMAGES 600 00:40:54,267 --> 00:41:00,733 SUGGEST MARS' VOLCANOES ALSO MAY HAVE CREATED LAVA TUBES. 601 00:41:00,733 --> 00:41:04,300 ANY PLANET WITH BASALTIC VOLCANISM, ANY ROCKY PLANET, 602 00:41:04,300 --> 00:41:06,067 WILL PROBABLY HAVE LAVA TUBES. 603 00:41:06,067 --> 00:41:09,100 AND NOW WE'VE FOUND A COUPLE OF THEM ON MARS, 604 00:41:09,100 --> 00:41:10,633 IN PLACES WHERE THERE ARE SKYLIGHTS, 605 00:41:10,633 --> 00:41:13,067 PLACES WHERE THE ROOF HAS COLLAPSED 606 00:41:13,067 --> 00:41:16,200 AND YOU CAN SEE FROM ORBIT RIGHT INTO THOSE LAVA TUBES. 607 00:41:16,200 --> 00:41:19,200 Narrator: IF SOME TUBES HAVE COLLAPSED, 608 00:41:19,200 --> 00:41:21,667 PERHAPS MANY OTHERS ARE STILL INTACT, 609 00:41:21,667 --> 00:41:26,600 THE ANCIENT RELICS OF MARS' VOLCANIC PAST. 610 00:41:29,867 --> 00:41:34,133 NOW, AFTER LYING DORMANT FOR PERHAPS MILLIONS OF YEARS, 611 00:41:34,133 --> 00:41:39,833 THESE LAVA TUBES COULD BRING LIFE BACK TO THE RED PLANET. 612 00:41:39,833 --> 00:41:44,100 THAT LIFE WILL BE US. 613 00:41:46,700 --> 00:41:50,867 ONE OF THE CHALLENGES OF LIVING ON MARS FOR FUTURE HUMANS 614 00:41:50,867 --> 00:41:52,700 WILL BE THE RADIATION ENVIRONMENT. 615 00:41:52,700 --> 00:41:55,367 AND IN PARTICULAR, WHEN THERE ARE SOLAR STORMS, 616 00:41:55,367 --> 00:41:59,233 THE COSMIC RAYS COMING IN CAN BE DEADLY. 617 00:41:59,233 --> 00:42:04,733 AND HAVING A STORM SHELTER UNDER SOME LARGE MASS OF ROCK 618 00:42:04,733 --> 00:42:06,067 IS REALLY THE BEST WAY 619 00:42:06,067 --> 00:42:08,567 TO PROTECT YOURSELF FROM COSMIC RAYS. 620 00:42:11,600 --> 00:42:15,800 Narrator: THE TUBES AND CAVES OF MARS' EXTINCT VOLCANOES 621 00:42:15,800 --> 00:42:19,600 MIGHT ONE DAY MAKE A PERFECT HOME -- 622 00:42:19,600 --> 00:42:25,367 HOLDING IN AIR, SHIELDING US FROM DEADLY RADIATION. 623 00:42:25,367 --> 00:42:27,500 A LONG-DEAD VOLCANO 624 00:42:27,500 --> 00:42:31,667 COULD HELP FILL A WORLD WITH NEW LIFE. 625 00:42:35,900 --> 00:42:40,567 VOLCANOES CAN DESTROY, BUT THEY CAN ALSO CREATE. 626 00:42:40,567 --> 00:42:47,067 FROM THE SUPERHEATED VENTS OF EUROPA'S 60-MILE-DEEP OCEAN 627 00:42:47,067 --> 00:42:51,433 TO THE WATER VOLCANOES OF TITAN AND THE ROCK VOLCANOES OF EARTH, 628 00:42:51,433 --> 00:42:55,300 VAST GEOLOGIC PROCESSES 629 00:42:55,300 --> 00:42:59,067 SHAPE OUR WORLDS, OUR IMAGINATIONS, 630 00:42:59,067 --> 00:43:02,400 AND PERHAPS THE VERY STUFF OF LIFE.